Proizvodnja

Proizvodnja

Proizvodnja ili manufaktura je proces stvaranja jednog proizvoda s ciljem da se proizvod proda.[1] Proizvodnja se može odvijati u privatnim domovima (kuhinjski sto i garaža), u manjim radionicama ili velikim fabrikama.[2][3]

Etimologija

Savremena engleska reč manufacture verovatno potiče od srednjofrancuske reči manufacture („proces pravljenja”) koja sama potiče od klasične latinske reči manū („ruka”) i srednjofrancuske facture („izrada”). Alternativno, engleska reč je možda nastala nezavisno od ranije engleske reči manufact („napravljeno ljudskim rukama”) i facture.[4] Njena prva upotreba na engleskom jeziku zabeležena je sredinom 16. veka u kontekstu ručne izrade proizvoda.[5][6]

Istorija i razvoj

Praistorija i drevna istorija

Jezgro od kremenog kamena za izradu sečiva, iz perioda pre oko 40000

Ljudski preci su proizvodili predmete pomoću kamena i drugih alata dugo pre pojave vrste Homo sapiens pre približno 200.000 godina.[7] Najraniji načini izrade kamenog oruđa, poznati kao Oldovanska „industrija“, datiraju od pre najmanje 2,3 miliona godina,[8] a najraniji direktni dokazi o upotrebi alata pronađeni u Etiopiji u dolini Velikog rascede datiraju od 2,5. pre milion godina.[9] Za proizvodnju kamenog alata, „jezgro” od tvrdog kamena sa specifičnim svojstvima ljuštenja (poput kremena) udarano je kamenim oblucima. Ovo ljuštenje je davalo oštre ivice koje su se mogle koristiti kao oruđe, prvenstveno u obliku cepača ili strugača.[10] Ovi alati su u velikoj meri pomogli ranim ljudima u njihovom načinu života lovaca i sakupljača da formiraju druge alate od mekših materijala, poput kostiju i drveta.[11] U srednjem paleolitu, pre otprilike 300.000 godina, došlo je do uvođenja tehnike pripremljenog jezgra, gde se više sečiva moglo brzo formirati od jednog kamenog jezgra.[10] Ljuštenje pod pritiskom, u kojem se udaranjem drvetom, koskom ili rogom mogao vrlo fino oblikovati kamen, razvijeno je tokom gornjeg paleolita, počevši pre otprilike 40.000 godina.[12] Tokom neolita, polirani kameni alati su se proizvodili od raznih tvrdih stena, poput kremena, žada, žadeita i zelenog kamena. Polirane sekire korišćene su zajedno sa drugim kamenim alatima, uključujući projektile, noževe i strugače, kao i oruđe proizvedeno od organskih materijala kao što su drvo, kost i rog.[13]

Mač ili bodež iz kasnog bronzanog doba

Veruje se da je topljenje bakra nastalo kada je tehnologija lončarskih peći dozvoljavala dovoljno visoke temperature.[14] Koncentracija različitih elemenata, poput arsena, raste sa dubinom u ležištima rude bakra i topljenjem ovih ruda, dobija se arsenična bronza, koja se može dovoljno očvrsnuti da bude pogodna za proizvodnju alata.[14] Bronza je legura bakra sa kalajem; potonji se nalaze u relativno malom broju nalazišta u svetu, što je imalo za posledicu da je puno vremena prošlo pre nego što je prava limena bronza postala široko rasprostranjena. Tokom bronzanog doba, bronza je bila veliki napredak u odnosu na kamen kao materijal za izradu alata, kako zbog svojih mehaničkih svojstava poput čvrstoće i duktilnosti, tako i zbog toga što se mogla livi u kalupe zarad pravljenja predmeta složenih oblika. Dostupnost bronze je značajno unapredilo tehnologiju brodogradnje sa boljim alatima i bronzanim ekserima, što je zamenilo staru metodu pričvršćivanja dasaka trupa kablom utkanom kroz izbušene otvore.[15] Gvozdeno doba je konvencionalno definisano rasprostranjenom proizvodnjom oružja i alata od gvožđa i čelika, a ne od bronze.[16] Topljenje gvožđa je teže od topljenja kalaja i bakra, jer topljeno gvožđe zahteva toplotnu obradu i može se topiti samo u posebno projektovanim pećima. Mesto i vreme otkrića topljenja gvožđa nisu poznati, delimično i zbog poteškoća u razlikovanju metala ekstrahovanog iz ruda koje sadrže nikl od vruće obrađenog meteoritskog gvožđa.[17]

Tokom razvoja drevnih civilizacija, mnoge drevne tehnologije rezultirale iz napretka u proizvodnji. Nekoliko od šest klasičnih jednostavnih mašina izmišljeno je u Mesopotamiji.[18] Mesopotamijci su zaslužni za pronalazak točka. Mehanizam točka i osovine prvi put se pojavio sa lončarskim točkom, izmišljenom u Mesopotamiji (savremeni Irak) tokom 5. milenijuma pre nove ere.[19] Egipatski papir napravljen od papirusa, kao i keramika, masovno su se proizvodili i izvozili po celom mediteranskom bazenu. Rane građevinske tehnike koje su koristili stari Egipćani koristile su cigle sastavljene uglavnom od gline, peska, mulja i drugih minerala.[20]

Vrste proizvodnje

Proizvodnja se može podeliti prema vrsti proizvodnje.

  • Rukotvorine
  • Industrijska proizvodnja
  • Tačno na vreme proizvodnja (engl. Just in time)
  • Masovna proizvodnja
  • Proizvodnja po narudžbini
  • Projektno orijentisana proizvodnja
  • Proizvodna linija
  • Serijska proizvodnja

Reference

  1. ↑ Kenton, Will. „Manufacturing” (en). Investopedia. Arhivirano iz originala na datum 17. 11. 2020.. Pristupljeno 16. 1. 2021. 
  2. ↑ Manufacturing & Investment Around The World: An International Survey Of Factors Affecting Growth & Performance, ISR Publications/Google Books, revised second edition, . 2002. ISBN 978-0-906321-25-6. .
  3. ↑ Research, Industrial Systems (20. 5. 2002). Manufacturing and Investment Around the World: An International Survey of Factors Affecting Growth and Performance. ISBN 978-0-906321-25-6. 
  4. ↑ Stevenson, Angus, ur. (2010). „manufacture, n.”. Oxford English Dictionary (3rd izd.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. DOI:10.1093/acref/9780199571123.001.0001. ISBN 9780199571123. 
  5. ↑ Srivatsan, T. S.; Manigandan, K.; Sudarshan, T. S. (2018). „Use of Conventional Manufacturing Techniques for Materials”. Manufacturing Techniques for Materials: Engineering and Engineered. Boca Raton: CRC Press. str. 436–437. ISBN 9781138099265. 
  6. ↑ Youssef, Helmi A.; El-Hofy, Hassan (2008). Machining Technology: Machine Tools and Operations. Boca Raton: CRC Press. str. 1. ISBN 9781420043396. 
  7. ↑ „Human Ancestors Hall: Homo sapiens”. Smithsonian Institution. Pristupljeno 15. 7. 2021. 
  8. ↑ „Ancient 'tool factory' uncovered”. BBC News. 6. 5. 1999.. Pristupljeno 15. 7. 2021. 
  9. ↑ Heinzelin, Jean de; Clark, JD; White, T; Hart, W; Renne, P; Woldegabriel, G; Beyene, Y; Vrba, E (April 1999). „Environment and Behavior of 2.5-Million-Year-Old Bouri Hominids”. Science 284 (5414): 625–629. Bibcode 1999Sci...284..625D. DOI:10.1126/science.284.5414.625. PMID 10213682. 
  10. ↑ 10,0 10,1 Burke, Ariane. „Archaeology”. Encyclopedia Americana. Arhivirano iz originala na datum 21. 5. 2008.. Pristupljeno 15. 7. 2021. 
  11. ↑ Plummer, Thomas (2004). „Flaked Stones and Old Bones: Biological and Cultural Evolution at the Dawn of Technology”. American Journal of Physical Anthropology (Yearbook of Physical Anthropology) Suppl 39 (47): 118–64. DOI:10.1002/ajpa.20157. PMID 15605391. 
  12. ↑ Haviland, William A. (2004). Cultural Anthropology: The Human Challenge. The Thomson Corporation. str. 77. ISBN 978-0-534-62487-3. 
  13. ↑ Tóth, Zsuzsanna (2012). „The First Neolithic Sites in Central/South-East European Transect, Volume III: The Körös Culture in Eastern Hungary”. u: Anders, Alexandra; Siklósi, Zsuzsanna. Bone, Antler, and Tusk tools of the Early Neolithic Körös Culture. Oxford: BAR International Series 2334. 
  14. ↑ 14,0 14,1 Merson, John (1990). The Genius That Was China: East and West in the Making of the Modern World. Woodstock, NY: The Overlook Press. str. 69. ISBN 978-0-87951-397-9A companion to the PBS Series "The Genius That Was China" 
  15. ↑ Paine, Lincoln (2013). The Sea and Civilization: A Maritime History of the World. New York: Random House, LLC. 
  16. ↑ Waldbaum, Jane C. From Bronze to Iron. Göteburg: Paul Astöms Förlag (1978): 56–58.
  17. ↑ Photos, E. (1989). „The Question of Meteoritic versus Smelted Nickel-Rich Iron: Archaeological Evidence and Experimental Results”. World Archaeology 20 (3): 403–421. DOI:10.1080/00438243.1989.9980081. JSTOR 124562. 
  18. ↑ Moorey, Peter Roger Stuart (1999). Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: The Archaeological Evidence. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 9781575060422. 
  19. ↑ D.T. Potts (2012). A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East. str. 285. 
  20. ↑ Jerzy Trzciñski , Malgorzata Zaremba , Sawomir Rzepka , Fabian Welc , and Tomasz Szczepañski. "Preliminary Report on Engineering Properties and Environmental Resistance of Ancient Mud Bricks from Tell El-retaba Archaeological Site in the Nile Delta," Studia Quarternaria 33, no. 1 (2016): 55.

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Spoljašnje veze

Proizvodnja na Wikimedijinoj ostavi
  • How Everyday Things Are Made: video presentations
  • Grant Thornton IBR 2008 Manufacturing industry focus
  • "Manufacturing Technology Insights by CXO" (A review on Global Manufacturing Technology Industry.)
  • EEF, the manufacturers' organisation – industry group representing uk manufacturers
  • Manufacturing Consulting Firms Empowering aspirants to get a professional foothold
  • Industry Today – Industrial and Manufacturing Methodologies
  • Enabling the Digital Thread for Smart Manufacturing
  • Manufacturing Sector of the National Occupational Research Agenda, USA, 2018.
Normativna kontrola Uredi na Wikidati
  • LCCN: sh97001369
  • GND: 4127067-8
  • BNF: cb124265053 (podaci)
  • NKC: ph116698
  • BNE: XX551573