Leeward Islands (Antigua and Barbuda, Guadeloupe, Dominica, St. Kitts and Nevis, Sint Eustatius, Saba, St. Barthelemy, St. Martin and Anguilla), Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, Bermuda, parts of the Northeastern USA, Newfoundland
IBTrACS
Part of the 1995 Atlantic hurricane season
Hurricane Luis was a long lived and powerful Category 4 hurricane. It was the strongest hurricane to make landfall and the third-most intense hurricane recorded during the 1995 Atlantic hurricane season. The storm, along with Humberto, Iris, and Karen, was one of four simultaneous tropical systems in the Atlantic basin.
The system formed from a tropical wave, south of Cape Verde islands west of Africa, on August 27, and attained tropical storm status on August 29. The storm reached hurricane status on August 31 and later developed into a 140 mph (230 km/h) Category 4 hurricane.[1] Luis affected the Leeward Islands at this strength from September 4 to September 6. By the time Luis made landfall on Newfoundland, it had weakened down to a Category 1 hurricane and then became extratropical on September 11.
Luis caused extensive damage to Antigua, St. Barthelemy, the island of St. Martin and Anguilla as it affected Bermuda. The storm accounted for 19 confirmed deaths, left nearly 20,000 homeless (mostly in Anguilla, Barbuda, and St. Martin), and affected more than 70,000 people. Total damage was estimated at $3.3 billion (1995 USD) across the affected areas.
On August 26, 1995, an area of disturbed weather associated with a tropical wave emerged over the eastern Atlantic Ocean, between the western coast of Africa and the Cape Verde Islands. A low-level circulation center formed and moved westward until it developed a weak surface low on August 27, and at around 1200 UTC on August 27, the National Hurricane Center (NHC) designated the system as Tropical Depression Thirteen. 36 hours later, on August 29, the NHC upgraded the system to Tropical Storm Luis. Although convective activity fluctuated over the next two days as the result of a nearby wind shear, the storm continued to intensify as pressure rose. When the wind shear relented, an eye began to form, and the system attained hurricane status on August 31. It was classified as a Category 3 major hurricane 18 hours later.[1]
Tropical Storms Karen (left) and Luis (right) on August 29
As it tracked north-northwestward, Hurricane Luis continued to strengthen, and became a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir–Simpson scale on September 2. As it turned further westward, the cyclone maintained a rectilinear slow motion, and the intensity was confirmed by a reconnaissance flight on September 3. At the time of the flight, Luis was located approximately 540 miles (870 km) east of the Lesser Antilles. The storm began to accelerate slightly as it moved along a subtropical ridge, due to the absorption of Tropical Storm Karen by the stronger Iris.[1]
By the time that it approached the Lesser Antilles on September 4, Luis had sustained a wind field measuring from 345 to 365 miles (555 to 587 km) in diameter. On the morning of September 5, the islands of Dominica and Guadeloupe, which experienced hurricane-force winds on the northeastern coast of Grande-Terre and La Désirade, had been relatively spared by the storm. The eyewall of the hurricane, however, skimmed Antigua and directly passed over Barbuda as it slowly weakened. During this time, the storm proceeded slowly northwestward, causing moderate damage to Montserrat, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Sint Eustatius, and Saba. Later, Luis moved along St. Barthelemy, St. Martin, and ultimately crossed Anguilla, where the most powerful winds within the eyewall were estimated to have reached 135 mph (217 km/h), and its central pressure had dropped from 945 to 942 mbar (27.9 to 27.8 inHg).[1]
Luis maintained its Category 4 intensity until September 7, when it was situated approximately 150 mi (240 km) north of Puerto Rico. After seven consecutive days as a major hurricane with maximum sustained winds of at least 115 mph (185 km/h) beginning on September 1, the storm gradually re-curved over the northern Atlantic as a Category 2 hurricane, its wind speed dropping to 110 mph (180 km/h).[2] On September 9, the center of the storm passed 200 miles (320 km) to the west of Bermuda, causing minor damage.[1] Later that day, the storm began to accelerate as it traveled northeast, ahead of a strong trough located to the northwest of Luis.[3] On the afternoon of September 10, Luis began to undergo an extratropical transition as it rapidly approached the Canadian coastline.[4] Due to the rapid movement of the storm, significant weakening did not occur until Luis was at an unusually high latitude. The NHC reported that the central pressure of the storm decreased to 961 mbar (28.4 inHg), and sustained winds did not exceed 90 mph (140 km/h).[1][5]
Luis maintained this intensity until September 11, when it reached the Avalon Peninsula in eastern Newfoundland,[1][6] where cold, dry air became entrenched in its circulation, and the system began to merge with the approaching trough. The NHC issued their final advisory on Hurricane Luis at 0900 UTC on September 11, 1995. The hurricane sped at nearly 65 mph (105 km/h) to the northeast before transitioning into an extratropical cyclone.[1][7] The extratropical remains persisted for 30 more hours over the North Atlantic Ocean before being absorbed by the trough near the southern coast of Greenland late on September 12.[1]
Preparations
Hurricane Luis on September 6 to the north of the Leeward Islands
Three days before passing over the northern Lesser Antilles, Luis became a Category 4 hurricane and was forecasted to avoid areas well to the north, following the path set by Humberto and Karen. However, as Karen neared Iris, it was weakened and absorbed by the stronger storm. This, and the nearby subtropical ridge, ended up steering Luis to the west.
Caribbean
Due to its slow motion, Luis allowed local officials ample time to prepare. Before the storm's arrival, a total of 17 tropical cyclone watches and warnings were declared in several areas throughout the Caribbean. Over the course of September 3, Antigua, Barbuda, Nevis, St. Kitts, St. Martin, Saba, St. Eustatius, Dominica, Guadeloupe, and St. Barthelemy were placed under hurricane watch. At 0000 UTC on September 4, this was upgraded to a hurricane warning for the region from Antigua to St. Martin, and a tropical storm warning for Dominica and Guadeloupe. Six hours later, the British and United States Virgin Islands, as well as Puerto Rico, were placed under hurricane watch. By 2100 UTC, those regions had been upgraded to warning, as well as St. Barthelemy, St. Martin, and Dominica, with Saint Lucia and Martinique under a tropical storm warning.[1]
At 1200 UTC on September 5, the tropical storm warning for St. Lucia was discontinued, and nine hours later, Dominica was downgraded to a tropical storm warning. Throughout September 6–8, all warnings were either downgraded or discontinued. Bermuda was placed under tropical storm watch at 2100 UTC on September 7. This watch was upgraded to a warning at 1500 UTC the next day, and discontinued at 0900 UTC on the 10th.[1]
Canada
The Canadian Hurricane Centre began issuing advisories on the morning of September 8, about 48 hours before Luis' entry into the center's coverage area, as the storm's trajectory began to curve east of Florida. The Maritimes center of the Meteorological Service of Canada issued warnings for the affected areas as early as September 9, 36 hours before the arrival of the storm.[8]
Overall, the powerful winds and heavy rainfall caused by Luis caused extensive crop and property damage across the Leeward Islands. Due to a lack of reports from some affected areas, the exact amount of damage caused by the storm is unknown, but it is estimated at US$3 billion.
Antigua and Barbuda
As a result of a direct hit from the Category 4 hurricane, Barbuda experienced 135 mph (217 km/h) and over 10 inches (25 cm) of rain, contributing to very extensive damage. According to Prime MinisterLester Bird, most houses were damaged or eradicated at 70% in Barbuda,[13] and nearly 45% of the residences on Antigua were damaged or destroyed by the hurricane as it passed near 30 miles (48 km) to the north of the island.[1] Across the islands, numerous inhabitants experienced power outages and disrupted water systems. The storm ultimately accounted for three deaths, and injured 165 locals. 32,000 inhabitants on both islands were greatly affected, with 1,700 forced to take shelter, and approximately 3,000 left homeless. A United States station on Antigua lost its wind recording equipment when gusts reached 146 mph (235 km/h) and minimum pressure at 971 mbar (28.7 inHg), while an amateur radio reported an unconfirmed gust of 175 mph (282 km/h) in Barbuda. Throughout the country, the total damage from the storm was estimated at $350 million, or 60% of the country's Gross Domestic Product (GDP), with most of the damage on Barbuda.[14]
Guadeloupe
Luis caused some damage as it passed near 65 miles (105 km) north of Guadeloupe, predominantly to Grande-Terre. Hurricane-force conditions resulted in moderate damage to homes and roofs, uprooted trees, and severe beach erosion.[citation needed] The Basse-Terre region, meanwhile, received minor damage, except to banana crops that were damaged at nearly 90%, and sugar cane crops on the north at nearly 20%. Overall, 5 to 11 inches (13 to 28 cm) of rain were recorded in the islands, while the mountain regions recorded up to 20 inches (51 cm). The highest rainfall within the 48-hour period was in La Grande Soufrière, where 22.91 inches (58.2 cm) of rain damaged the west coast roads and washed away houses.[15]
The meteorological office in Raizet recorded sustained winds of 48 mph (77 km/h), with gusts that reached near 65 mph (105 km/h). The office also reported a fall in minimal pressure to 994 mbar (29.4 inHg) between 3 and 4am on September 5, and a total of 178 millimetres (7.0 in) of rain across the whole period. Only Desirade, the easternmost island, recorded hurricane-force winds of 75 mph (121 km/h), and a sustained gust at 89 mph (143 km/h) between 3 and 4am on September 5,[1] with a 992 mbar (29.3 inHg) pressure. The storm claimed the life of a 19-year-old French tourist, who had been dragged away by vigorous waves on a pier in eastern Saint-François. The total damage was estimated at 250 million francs ($50 million USD), mostly for the crops and roads.[16]
Wettest tropical cyclones and their remnants in Guadeloupe Highest-known totals
The islands suffered extensive damages from 135 mph (217 km/h) winds as the hurricane passed at least 20 miles (32 km) north of Saint Barthelemy. The main weather station recorded wind gust at 100 mph (160 km/h) before the anemometer broke, while other stations suggest wind speeds of 125 mph (201 km/h) and gusts of up to 155 mph (249 km/h).[1] This difference in measurement may be due to local effects produced by mountainous terrain on the island and the aircraft sampling winds at a level above the region of maximum winds. Additionally, minimal recorded pressure was at 948 mbar (28.0 inHg) as the storm made its closest approach and stayed below 1,000 mbar (30 inHg) for at least 24 hours.[24]
St. Martin
The eyewall of Luis passed 15 to 20 miles (24 to 32 km) northeast of the island of St. Martin, causing extensive and catastrophic damage to 60% of the area, particularly on the Dutch side. A total of 6.5 in (17 cm) of rain was recorded on the island's territory over a period of 48 hours, and the storm spawned several F3tornadoes.
French Collectivity
In Grand Case Bay, rough sea conditions and strong winds were responsible for the damage or destruction of 90% of homes. Other towns, such as the French Quarter and Marigot, also reported extensive damage to homes and vegetation. At least 50% of houses in the Collectivity of Saint Martin were damaged, leaving between 950 and 2,000 residents homeless.
The meteorological office at the Grand Case-Espérance Airport estimated some wind gusts of over 130 mph (210 km/h), while an unofficial anemometer in the port of Marigot recorded wind gusts at 126 mph (203 km/h) before the instrument was toppled. One person was reported dead, and, due to lack of insurances, the preliminary cost of Luis on the French Collectivity was 2 billion francs (€300 million, or US$350 million) worth of damage.
Sint Maarten
The southern part of the island, the Dutch-owned Sint Maarten, received more catastrophic damage than the northern French end. The strongest winds came onshore on the Dutch side, and the capital city of Philipsburg was at least 70% decimated by the storm. Flooding from Luis affected the Great Salt Pond, which deluged several streets.
Of the 70% of residences that were damaged in the storm, nearly 15% became uninhabitable, including businesses, churches, the main airport terminal, some schools, and four hotels. Over 5,000 Haitians living in the Dutch quarter were left homeless, while some towns on the island spent nearly three months without water and power. Of the 1,500 boats sheltered in Simpson Bay Lagoon, nearly 1,300—or 85%—were sunken or run aground. The official death toll in Sint Maarten was eight, with the possibility of more deaths by drowning in the lagoon.
Princess Juliana Airport recorded sustained winds of 87 mph (140 km/h), with maximum gusts of up to 114 mph (183 km/h). The barometric pressure fell, at its lowest, between 963 and 964 mbar (28.4 and 28.5 inHg). Tropical storm-force winds brushed the island for approximately 21 hours, while hurricane-force sustained winds lasted up to eight hours as the hurricane passed with minimal forward speed between 7 and 9 mph (11 and 14 km/h). Total damages on the Dutch side were catastrophic, totaling around US$1.8 billion,[25] and Luis was the most devastating hurricane to hit the islands since Hurricane Donna in 1960.
Wettest tropical cyclones and their remnants on Saint Martin/Sint Maarten Highest-known totals
The eye of the hurricane passed over the northeastern tip of Anguilla. Although its geographic placement means that the island likely would have sustained worse damage than St. Martin, the total scale of damage is still unknown. Luis was the worst hurricane the island suffered since Hurricane Donna in 1960.[citation needed]
St. Kitts and Nevis
The eye of Luis passed nearly 50 miles (80 km) northeast of Saint Kitts and Nevis, causing severe beach erosion,[34] moderate damage to residences, and leaving at least 2,000 residents homeless. The storm further damaged local vegetation and some of the road infrastructure, with problems essentially arising from the poor water system on the islands. Total damage ultimately reached $197 million.
Dominica
Tropical storm-force winds of roughly 40 mph (64 km/h) affected Dominica from the morning to afternoon of September 5. The lowest pressure recorded was between 1,003 and 1,005 mbar (1,003 and 1,005 hPa). As the eye of Luis passed nearly 125 miles (201 km) north, the majority of the damage experienced in Dominica was inflicted upon banana crops that had already been damaged from the earlier hit by Iris. While overall damages were fairly minor, beach erosion was common, and Luis disrupted several beach hotels and coastal roads.[34] Rough waves on the northeastern and western coast affected towns such as Marigot, Roseau, and Portsmouth, leaving about 1,000 residents homeless. Ultimately, a fisherman was confirmed dead due to rough sea conditions.[35] Property damage from Luis alone was estimated at $47 million, while the combined effects of Luis, Iris, and Hurricane Marilyn, which struck ten days later, totaled $184 million.[citation needed]
Puerto Rico
Luis passed at 120 miles (190 km) northeast of Puerto Rico, causing minor damages in the east.[36] Two deaths were additionally reported on the island as a consequence of rushing to prepare for the arrival of the storm.[16]
Bermuda
Luis, west of Bermuda
Bermuda reported sustained winds of up to 46 mph (74 km/h). Offshore, the storm produced waves approaching 100 feet (30 m) in height. In total, little to no damage was reported on the island.[1]
Eastern United States and offshore
Rough seas from the storm affected the East Coast of the United States, resulting in some beach erosion and damage to two waterfront structures on Fire Island.[37] High waves, in combination with high tide, caused significant beach erosion and coastal flooding. On September 7, rip currents produced by Luis caused the death of one person near Corncake Inlet, North Carolina.[38] In Brunswick County, North Carolina, eight homes were washed away by waves, and 40 feet (12 m) of the beach was lost. In nearby Hyde, Carteret, and Onslow counties, waves of up to 17 feet (5.2 m) washed out 33 feet (10 m) of the Triple S Pier in Atlantic Beach, effectively destroying it. Total losses in North Carolina amounted to $1.9 million.[39][40][41] In New York, rough seas undermined and destroyed one home, and led to the death of one person who was swimming in the high waves.[11][12]
Atlantic Canada
Hurricane Luis making landfall in Canada
On September 11, a rogue wave triggered by Luis slammed the Queen Elizabeth 2ocean liner when it was about 200 nautical miles (370 km; 230 mi) south of eastern Newfoundland.[4][42] A nearby Canadian buoy recorded a 98-foot wave (30 m) at roughly the same time.[1] Although the ship did not sustain any significant damage, its arrival in New York was delayed considerably.[43]
Throughout eastern Newfoundland, the system dropped 2.4 to 4.7 inches (61 to 119 mm) of rain at its landfall as a Category 1.[44] Northwesterly winds there gusted to 81 mph (130 km/h).[4] The storm caused minor damage to the large province, with flooding costing an estimated $500,000 in damages.[45] One storm-related death was reported in Canada.[1]
Aftermath and economic impact
Antigua, Barbuda, Dominica and St. Kitts and Nevis
While most of the support was entirely financial, given in emergency and recovery funds, the European Community Humanitarian Aid Office provided relief goods, such as plastic sheeting, water containers, blankets, and basic medical supplies worth $1.2 million. The Government of Jamaica deployed military recovery teams to affected regions to assist with rehabilitation and cleanup efforts.[46]
Saint Martin
The degree of devastation left by Hurricane Luis on Saint Martin left the island inaccessible by air or sea for two days.[47] The storm left up to 2,000 citizens homeless, and rendered the island largely without electricity, running water, or telephone service. When transportation resumed, tourists scrambled for a charter flight out of Princess Juliana International Airport.[48] Both the Netherlands and France sent soldiers and police officers to their respective sides of the island, but eyewitnesses and residents reported that the authorities did little to intercede in the widespread looting that followed the hurricane.[49]
Aside from high winds and seeds, Saint Martin was affected by a substantial difference in wind speed forecasts measured at the sea-level airport, and those measured in homes throughout the island hillsides. Sea-level readings showed 86 miles per hour (138 km/h) sustained winds and gusts of up to 114 miles per hour (183 km/h),[24] while hillside measurements showed gusts between 170 and 200 miles per hour (270 and 320 km/h). A sailor that had been sheltered in the lagoon recorded a record 115 miles per hour (185 km/h) wind gust, and a minimal pressure reading to 965 mbar (28.5 inHg).[50]
Records and retirement
A satellite image of the Atlantic Ocean on August 24 including Humberto, Iris, Jerry, and two waves that would soon become Karen and Luis
On August 29, Tropical Storm Luis marked the earliest date on which the twelfth named storm of the season formed, surpassing the previous record set by Tropical Storm Twelve on August 31, 1933. This record has since been broken by Hurricane Laura, which intensified into a tropical storm on August 20, 2020.
Shortly before becoming extratropical, Hurricane Luis was moving at 65 mph (105 km/h), becoming one of the fastest-moving Atlantic hurricanes in recorded history.[51] With a hurricane force-wind field expanding over 130 miles (210 km) from the center, Luis had the largest radius of hurricane-force winds measured for an Atlantic hurricane until Lorenzo in 2019.[52] It was also one of the most intense extratropical cyclones by wind speed. While extratropical cyclones usually only have wind speeds ranging from 45 to 80 mph (72 to 129 km/h), Luis achieved major hurricane-force winds south of Newfoundland.[citation needed] This would not occur again until Hurricane Fiona in 2022.
On September 11, a 98 feet (30 m) wave struck an ocean liner as a result of Luis. This wave is the largest ever officially recorded,[53] although Hurricane Ivan may have produced a wave of up to 130 feet (40 m) high off the coast of Mexico in 2004.[54]
Since 1950, there have been very few Atlantic hurricanes that have had an Accumulated cyclone energy (ACE) index of over 50. By spending nearly fourteen days as a named storm, including seven consecutive days as a major hurricane, Luis achieved an ACE value of 53.73, the highest since Hurricane Inez in 1966. It retained this record until 2003, when Hurricane Isabel recorded an ACE of 63.3.
Due to the severe damage and loss of life caused by the storm in the Leeward Islands, the name "Luis" was retired in the spring of 1996 by the World Meteorological Organization, and will never be used for another Atlantic tropical cyclone. It was replaced with "Lorenzo" for the 2001 Atlantic hurricane season.[55][56]
See also
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hurricane Luis.
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^Lixion Avila (September 9, 1995). "Hurricane Luis Discussion Number 48". National Hurricane Center. Retrieved May 16, 2009.
^Edward Rappaport (September 9, 1995). "Hurricane Luis Discussion Number 50". National Hurricane Center.
^ abcStaff Writer (September 18, 2003). "Canadian Hurricane Centre Summary for 1995 - Luis". Canadian Hurricane Centre. Archived from the original on October 25, 2006. Retrieved May 16, 2009.
^Max Mayfield (September 10, 1995). "Hurricane Luis Discussion Number 53". National Hurricane Center. Retrieved May 16, 2009.
^Staff Writer (September 14, 2010). "1995- Luis". Canadian Hurricane Centre. Retrieved November 14, 2010.
^Richard Pasch (September 11, 1995). "Hurricane Luis Discussion Number 56". National Hurricane Center. Retrieved May 16, 2009.
^Canadian Hurricane Centre (January 15, 2014). "Hurricane Luis (August 26 to September 12, 1995)". ECCC. Retrieved April 22, 2019.
^ abcd"International Disaster Database". Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters. 2011. Retrieved August 15, 2011.
^"Dominica - Hurricane Situation Report No.3". United Nations Department of Humanitarian Affairs. ReliefWeb. September 19, 1995. Retrieved August 15, 2011.
^ ab"New York Event Report". National Climatic Data Center. 1995. Retrieved May 14, 2009.[permanent dead link]
^ ab"New York Event Report". National Climatic Data Center. 1995. Retrieved May 14, 2009.[permanent dead link]
^"20th Anniversary of Hurricane Luis". Anumetservice.wordpress.com. 5 September 2015. Archived from the original on 12 September 2017. Retrieved 30 September 2017.
^Caribbean - Hurricane Luis Sep 1995 UN DHA Situation Reports Archived 2007-09-27 at the Wayback Machine
^ ab"Hurricane Luis Kills At Least 13 People -- Puerto Rico Hit, Storm May Spare East Coast". The Seattle Times. September 7, 1995.
^"Tempête Fiona : l'état de catastrophe naturelle sera reconnu en Guadeloupe, annonce Darmanin" [Storm Fiona: the state of natural disaster will be recognized in Guadeloupe, announces Darmanin]. Europe 1 (in French). 2022-09-18. Retrieved 2022-10-13.
^ abRoth, David M. (January 3, 2023). "Tropical Cyclone Point Maxima". Tropical Cyclone Rainfall Data. United States Weather Prediction Center. Retrieved January 6, 2023. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
^Service Régional de METEO-FRANCE en Guadeloupe. COMPTE RENDU METEOROLOGIQUE: Passage de l'Ouragan LENNY du 17 au 19 novembre 1999 sur l'archipel de la Guadeloupe. Retrieved on 2007-02-19. A
^Avila, Lixion A; National Hurricane Center (October 23, 1996). Hurricane Hortense 3-16 September 1996 (Preliminary Report). United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Weather Service. Archived from the original on July 3, 2013. Retrieved June 17, 2012.
^World Meteorological Organization. Review of the Past Hurricane Season. Retrieved on 2007-02-24.
^(in French) AFP, France Antilles (2009-09-03). "07 - La Tempête tropicale Erika affecte la Guadeloupe". Catastrophes Naturalles. Archived from the original on 2016-04-30. Retrieved 2009-09-04.
^"PASSAGE DE L'OURAGAN EARL SUR LA GUADELOUPE Et LES ILES DU NORD" [PASSAGE OF THE HURRICANE EARL ON THE GUADELOUPE AND THE NORTH ISLANDS] (PDF). meteo.fr (in French). Retrieved 2017-12-15.
^ abMiles B. Lawrence; Max B. Mayfield; Lixion A. Avila; Richard J. Pasch; Edward N. Rappaport (May 1998). "Atlantic Hurricane Season of 1995" (PDF). Monthly Weather Review. 126 (5): 1124. Bibcode:1998MWRv..126.1124L. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1998)126<1124:AHSO>2.0.CO;2.
^"Global DL-DAT: Hurricane Louis Sint Maarten 1995 | GFDRR". Archived from the original on 2013-04-14. Retrieved 2012-07-04.
^Guiney, John L (December 9, 1999). Preliminary Report: Hurricane Lenny November 13 - 23, 1999 (PDF) (Report). United States National Hurricane Center. Retrieved April 25, 2016.
^Pasch, Richard J; National Hurricane Center (November 22, 1999). Hurricane Jose: October 17 - 25, 1999 (Preliminary Report). United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Weather Service. Retrieved December 7, 2012.
^Lawrence, Miles B; National Hurricane Center (January 8, 1996). Hurricane Luis: August 27 - September 11, 1995 (Preliminary Report). United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Weather Service. Retrieved December 7, 2012.
^Cangialosi, John P; National Hurricane Center (November 17, 2010). Hurricane Otto October 6 - 10(PDF) (Tropical Cyclone Report). United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Weather Service. p. 6-7. Retrieved December 7, 2012.
^ abConnor, Desiree; Etienne-LeBlanc, Sheryl (January 2013). Climatological Summary 2012(PDF) (Report). Meteorological Department St. Maarten. p. 10. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 5, 2014. Retrieved December 7, 2012.
^ ab2013 Atlantic Hurricane Season Summary Chart(PDF) (Report). Meteorological Department St. Maarten. January 2013. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 5, 2014. Retrieved February 5, 2013.
^ ab"Effects of the 1995 hurricanes on the islands from Anguilla to Dominica continued". UNESCO. Retrieved October 17, 2011.
^Dominica - Hurricane Situation Report Archived 2007-09-27 at the Wayback Machine
^"Hurricane Luis Spares Puerto Rico". Chicago Tribune. September 6, 1995.
^Rob Speyer (September 11, 1995). "Luis Lashed Fire Island's Homes, Shore". NY Daily News. New York. Archived from the original on August 2, 2009. Retrieved 2009-05-06.
^"North Carolina Event Report". National Climatic Data Center. 1995. Archived from the original on 2011-05-20. Retrieved May 14, 2009.
^"North Carolina Event Report". National Climatic Data Center. 1995. Retrieved May 14, 2009.[permanent dead link]
^"North Carolina Event Report". National Climatic Data Center. 1995. Retrieved May 14, 2009.[permanent dead link]
^"North Carolina Event Report". National Climatic Data Center. 1995. Retrieved May 14, 2009.[permanent dead link]
^Staff Writer (September 16, 1995). "Luxury Liner Hit by 95-Foot Wave in Atlantic". Reuters. Archived from the original on 2012-10-18. Retrieved 2009-05-06.
^Robert McFadden (September 12, 1995). "Tropical Storm Delays the Arrival of the QE2". The New York Times. Retrieved October 17, 2011.
^"Hurricanes...Statistics". Archived from the original on 2011-09-28. Retrieved 2011-07-24.
^Joyce Macpherson (1998). "Flood Risk Zones". Water Resources Atlas of Newfoundland. Retrieved May 14, 2009.
^ abcOffice for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (September 29, 1995). "OCHA Situation Reports 1-10". ReliefWeb. Retrieved May 14, 2009.
^Selsky, Andrew (September 8, 1995). "Hurricane Luis Devastates St. Maarten, Death Toll Overall At 19". AP News. Associated Press. Retrieved February 15, 2021.
^"Hurricane Luis Leaves St. Martin Short of Water, Food". Los Angeles Times. Reuters. September 11, 1995. Retrieved February 15, 2021.
^Sack, Kevin (September 8, 1995). "St. Maarten Is Left Smashed and Looted After Luis". The New York Times. Retrieved February 15, 2021.
^Malcolm Page (June 1, 1996). "Hurricane Luis: The View from Afloat". Ocean Cruising Club. Archived from the original on April 19, 2012. Retrieved October 17, 2011.
^"Atlantic hurricane best track (HURDAT version 2)" (Database). United States National Hurricane Center. April 5, 2023. Retrieved May 20, 2024. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
^Klotzbach, Philip [@philklotzbach] (October 2, 2019). "Hurricane Lorenzo's wind field continues to grow. The average hurricane-force wind radii is now 107.5 nautical miles - the largest Atlantic hurricane (as defined by 4-quadrant average (NW, SW, NE, SE) hurricane-force wind radii) since Luis in 1995" (Tweet). Retrieved 2 October 2019 – via Twitter.
^Staff Writer (2004). "Extremes of Weather: Horrifying hurricanes". The Canadian Atlas. Archived from the original on August 2, 2009. Retrieved May 14, 2009.
^Staff Writer (June 15, 2005). "The ten-storey Mexican wave". The Times. London. Retrieved May 14, 2009.
^National Hurricane Operations Plan (PDF) (Report). Washington, D.C.: NOAA Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research. May 2001. p. 3-7. Retrieved January 19, 2024.
^Maher, Brian; Beven, Jack (August 10, 1997). "World-wide Tropical Cyclone Names". National Hurricane Center. Archived from the original on December 10, 1997. Retrieved November 17, 2011.
Extratropical cyclone, remnant low, tropical disturbance, or monsoon depression
